[1] “Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas,” Union of Concerned Scientists, June 19, , https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-natural-gas.; Tim Donaghy and Charlie Jiang, “Fossil Fuel Racism: How Phasing Out Oil, Gas, and Coal Can Protect Communities,” April 13, , https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/fossil-fuel-racism/.
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[2] “Making Affordable Multifamily Housing More Energy Efficient: A Guide to Healthier Upgrade Materials.” Energy Efficiency for All, September . https://informed.habitablefuture.org/resources/research/11-making-affordable-multifamily-housing-more-energy-efficient-a-guide-to-healthier-upgrade-materials.
[3] Vallette, James. “Residential Fiberglass Insulation Transformed: Formaldehyde Is No More.” Healthy Building Network, October 30, . https://informed.habitablefuture.org/resources/news/131-residential-fiberglass-insulation-transformed-formaldehyde-is-no-more.
[4] Bozsaky, Dávid. “The Historical Development of Thermal Materials.” Periodica Polytechnica Architecture 41, no. 2 (n.d.): 49–56. https://doi.org/10./pp.ar.-2.02.
[5] Schneider. “Technical Datasheet: Best Wood Fibre,” September . https://www.schneider-holz.com/en/service/downloads/download/technical-data-sheet-fibre/.; TimberHP. “Product Data Sheet: TimberFill,” August . https://timberhpassets.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads//08//22__TimberHP_Cut_Sheets_TimberFill.pdf.; Gutex. “Thermofibre Data Sheet,” December . https://gutex.de/fileadmin/uploads/Downloads/Technische_Merkblaetter/GUTEX_EN_TD_Thermofibre_-12.pdf.; Steico. “STEICOzell.” Accessed October 27, . https://www.steico.com/en/products/insulation/insulation-between-studs/air-injected-insulation/steicozell.
[6] Havelock Wool. “Health Product Declaration: Havelock Wool Insulation,” January 2, . https://hpdrepository.hpd-collaborative.org/repository/HPDs/publish_672_Havelock_Wool_Insulation.pdf.; Havelock Wool. “Our Products.” Accessed December 20, . https://havelockwool.com/residential-insulation/.; Wool Life. “Natural Wool Insulation.” Accessed December 20, . https://naturalwool-insulation.com/natural-wool-insulation-in-the-usa/.; Lehner Wool. “ISOLENA Insulation.” Accessed December 20, . https://www.lehner-wool.com/en/brands/isolena.html.; Havelock Wool. “Havelock Wool Batt and Loose-Fill Insulation LCA Results & Interpretation,” June 5, . https://transparencycatalog.com/company/havelock-wool-insulation/showroom/havelock-wool-insulation/lca-results.;Eden Renewable Innovations Limited. “Environmental Product Declaration: Thermafleece Cosywool, Ultrawool,” November 1, . https://www.thermafleece.com/uploads/pro_.pdf.
[7] Nature Fibres, Inc. “Health Product Declaration: Natur-Chanv/Hemp Hemp Fiber Batt Insulation,” June 30, . https://hpdrepository.hpd-collaborative.org/repository/HPDs/_Natur_Chanv_Hemp_Hemp_Fiber_Batt_Insulation.pdf.; Hempitecture. “Technical Data: HempWool,” . https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1////files/HempWool_TDS_.1.pdf?v=.; Hempitecture. “HempWool Frequently Asked Questions.” Accessed December 20, . https://www.hempitecture.com/faq.; Ekolution AB. “Environmental Product Declaration: Ekolution Hemp Fibre Insulation,” October 9, . https://api.environdec.com/api/v1/EPDLibrary/Files/b-bd7d-46f0-9bce-b4ceb672/Data.; Hemspan. “Bio Wall Hemp Insulation Technical Specifications,” July . https://hemspan.com/wp-content/uploads//07/Bio-Wall-Tech-Specs--.pdf.; Atteberry, Wade. Hemp insulation fire retardant applicator and method. United States USA1, filed February 24, , and issued August 25, . https://patents.google.com/patent/USA1/en.; Gleich, Anmelder. Flame, fire and glow-protected natural fiber insulation materials and their production and use, in particular for natural fiber insulation products. Germany DEA1, filed March 28, , and issued October 1, . https://patents.google.com/patent/DEA1/en.; Piechatzek, Guenter Alois. Insulation mat based on hemp fibers and process and equipment for their production. Germany DEB4, filed September 29, , and issued June 22, . https://patents.google.com/patent/DEB4/en.; Eden Renewable Innovations Limited. “Material Safety Data Sheet: Thermafleece Hemp,” January 3, . https://www.celticsustainables.co.uk/content/Hemp/Thermafleece%20Hemp%20MSDS.pdf.; Nature Fibres, Inc. “Health Product Declaration: Natur-Bois/Wood Hemp-Wood Fiber Batt Insulation,” June 30, . https://hpdrepository.hpd-collaborative.org/repository/HPDs/_Natur_Bois_Wood_Hemp_Wood_Fiber_Batt_Insulation.pdf.
[8] Respirable dusts and fibers can pose an inhalation hazard for workers. The level of hazard depends on the shape, size, and durability of the dusts and fibers. While some specialty glass fibers are carcinogens, the glass and mineral fibers used in fiberglass and mineral wool insulation are not currently classified as carcinogens because they are biosoluble (readily dissolved and cleared from the lungs). In , the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) released a monograph on man-made mineral fibers. This study concluded that mineral wool fibers (including glass and rock or slag wool) were “possibly carcinogenic to humans.” In , new data from additional studies were reviewed and incorporated into a new monograph that concluded that the type of mineral wool fibers used in insulation are, “not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans.” In , both the National Toxicology Program (NTP) and the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) made a distinction in their listings between biosoluble glass and mineral fibers, which are cleared from the body, and certain other glass or mineral fibers that are inhalable and persist in the body (are biopersistent). This change meant that the cancer hazard association and a cancer warning, which was previously required on packaging, were no longer warranted for products using biosoluble fibers. The prior labeling of fiberglass insulation products with cancer warnings has led to some confusion in the industry, but the scientific consensus is that the biosoluble glass fibers that are used in insulation are not classified as carcinogens. Glass fibers from insulation can cause temporary eye, skin, and lung irritation. As with all products, proper personal protective equipment (PPE) should be used for installation or removal of products.
See: “IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 81 Man-Made Vitreous Fibers.” World Health Organization: International Agency for Research on Cancer, . http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol81/mono81.pdf.; “IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 43 Man-Made Mineral Fibers and Radon.” World Health Organization: International Agency for Research on Cancer, . http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol43/mono43.pdf.; “Modification of the Listing of Glasswool Fibers (Airborne Particles of Respirable Size) to Glass Wool Fibers (Inhalable and Biopersistent).” OEHHA, November 18, . https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/crnr/modification-listing-glasswool-fibers-airborne-particles-respirable-size-glass.; “New Substances Added to HHS Report on Carcinogens.” NIEHS, June 10, . https://web.archive.org/web//http://www.niehs.nih.gov:80/news/releases//roc/.; “ToxFAQsTM for Synthetic Vitreous Fibers.” Toxic Substances Portal - Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry. Accessed June 14, . https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=907&tid=185.
[9] Rockwool Nordics. “Environmental Product Declaration: Rockwool Granulate Thermal Insulation for the Nordics Market,” March 24, . https://www.epd-norge.no/getfile.php/-/EPDer/Byggevarer/Isolasjon/NEPD--_ROCKWOOL----Granulate-thermal-insulation-for-the-Nordics-market-.pdf.
[10] “Formaldehyde-Free Thermafiber® Mineral Wool Insulation.” Owens Corning. Accessed December 20, . https://www.owenscorning.com/formaldehyde-free.; “AFB Evo Technical Data Sheet.” Rockwool, January 1, . https://cdn01.rockwool.com/siteassets/o2-rockwool/documentation/technical-data-sheets/commercial/AFB-evo-Formaldehyde-Free-Techdata.pdf?f=.
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[11] “EnergyGuard NH Polyiso Insulation Health Product Declaration.” GAF, March 15, . https://hpdrepository.hpd-collaborative.org/repository/HPDs/publish_112_EnergyGuard_NH_Polyiso_Insulation_.pdf; Nandi, Malay, Lance Wang, and Jawed Asrar. Roofing systems and roofing boards with non-halogenated fire retardant. World Intellectual Property Organization WOA1, filed June 5, , and issued December 17, . https://patents.google.com/patent/WOA1/en.
[12] US EPA, OCSPP. “Potential Chemical Exposures From Spray Polyurethane Foam.” Overviews and Factsheets. Accessed March 30, . https://www.epa.gov/saferchoice/potential-chemical-exposures-spray-polyurethane-foam; Vallette, Jim. “Chlorine and Building Materials: A Global Inventory of Production Technologies, Markets, and Pollution - Phase 1: Africa, The Americas, and Europe.” Healthy Building Network, July .https://habitablefuture.org/resources/chlorine-building-materials-project-phase-1-africa-the-americas-and-europe/.
[13] US EPA. “Final Risk Evaluation for Cyclic Aliphatic Bromide Cluster (HBCD).” Accessed December 20, . https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/final-risk-evaluation-cyclic-aliphatic-bromide-cluster.
[14] Bienkowski, Brian. “‘Environmentally Friendly’ Flame Retardants Break down into Potentially Toxic Chemicals.” Environmental Health News, January 9, . https://www.ehn.org/environmentally-friendly-flame-retardants-break-down-into-potentially-toxic-chemicals-.html.; Minet, Laura, Arlene Blum, Seth R. Fernández, Kathryn M. Rodgers, Veena Singla, Anna Soehl, and Miriam L. Diamond. “High Production, Low Information: We Need To Know More About Polymeric Flame Retardants.” Environmental Science & Technology, February 22, . https://doi.org/10./acs.est.0c.
[15] Imidacloprid is listed in the All Contents of the Common Product profile. Hazards to bees are documented in, for example: Dively, G. P., et. al. (). "Assessment of chronic sublethal effects of imidacloprid on honey bee colony health." PloS one, 10(3), e-e. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10./journal.pone.; EPA. "Pesticide News Story: EPA Issues Registration Review Final Work Plan for Imidacloprid." Press release, July 13, . http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/cb/csb_page/updates//imidacloprid.html; Darriet, F., & Chandre, F. (). "Efficacy of six neonicotinoid insecticides alone and in combination with deltamethrin and piperonyl butoxide against pyrethroid‐resistant Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae)." Pest management science, 69(8), 905-910. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/; Dai, P. L., et. al. (). "Effects of sublethal concentrations of bifenthrin and deltamethrin on fecundity, growth, and development of the honeybee Apis mellifera ligustica." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 29(3), 644-649. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/; Cohnstaedt, L. W., & Allan, S. A. (). "Effects of sublethal pyrethroid exposure on the host‐seeking behavior of female mosquitoes." Journal of Vector Ecology, 36(2), 395-403. http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download//PDF. Imidacloprid is also listed as a potential endocrine disruptor by TEDX: https://endocrinedisruption.org/interactive-tools/tedx-list-of-potential-endocrine-disruptors/search-the-tedx-list.
[16] US EPA, “Global Warming Potentials and Ozone Depletion Potentials of Some Ozone-Depleting Substances and Alternatives Listed by the SNAP Program,” last updated November 6, , http://www3.epa.gov/ozone/snap/subsgwps.html
[17] Bettenhausen, Craig. “Rigid Foam Insulation Gets a Climate Chemistry Upgrade.” Chemical & Engineering News, May 25, . https://cen.acs.org/environment/greenhouse-gases/Rigid-foam-insulation-climate-chemistry/99/i20.
[18] A microchamber emission study published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) concluded that, “emissions from SPF can be highly variable.” TCPP, the common chlorinated flame retardant used, was detected in emissions from all four samples tested, including one that was tested 18 months after application. Other chemicals were found to be emitted as well. One sample, taken from a residential application of closed-cell SPF (applied during the summer of and tested March ), emitted more than 80 different chemicals. As the study’s authors note, these chemicals may not all have negative health impacts, but some most likely do, including the carcinogens 1,4-dioxane and 1,2-dichloropropane. See: Poppendieck, Dustin G., Mengyan Gong, and Lauren E. Lawson. “Lessons Learned from Spray Polyurethane Foam Emission Testing Using Micro-Chambers.” In The 59th Annual Polyurethanes Technical Conference. Baltimore, MD, . http://ws680.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=.
See also: US Environmental Protection Agency. “Vacate and Safe Re-Entry Time for Spray Polyurethane Foam Application.” Overviews and Factsheets. Accessed March 7, . https://web.archive.org/web//https://www.epa.gov/saferchoice/vacate-and-safe-re-entry-time-spray-polyurethane-foam-application.
[19] US Occupational Safety and Health Administration, “OSHA Fact Sheet: Do You Have Work-Related Asthma? A Guide for You and Your Doctor,” March , https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA.pdf; Kenneth D. Rosenman, Mary Jo Reilly, and Barton G. Pickelman, “ Annual Report Tracking Work-Related Asthma in Michigan” (Michigan State University, July 20, ), https://oem.msu.edu/images/annual_reports/-WRA-Annual-Report-FINAL.pdf; Daniel Lefkowitz et al., “Isocyanates and Work-Related Asthma: Findings from California, Massachusetts, Michigan and New Jersey, -,” American Journal of Industrial Medicine 58, no. 11 (November ): –49, https://doi.org/10./ajim.; While reported incidences have declined in recent years, limited data are available to gauge the scope of the issue.
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